Plasmodium inui
Plasmodium
Inui, the next species of human Plasmodium
Abstract
Malaria is an old vector-borne disease caused by apicomplexan vermin of
the kind plasmodium carried by the anopheles mosquitoes from one host to
another. The condition has recorded more than 210 million clinical cases and
over 300,000 deaths in 2018. It remains a significant threat to over 2 billion
people living in sultry and semitropical regions worldwide. Several studies
have identified malaria as a zoonotic ailment with human species originating
from the primates. With the early human Plasmodium, several parasites can
transmit humanoid malaria with the hope that there will be an appearance of
human type with animal derivation in the future. In this article, we are
considering the probability of having plasmodium Inui occurring in the future.
Introduction
A zoonotic disease is an infection ailment transmitted between classes
of humans and animals, i.e., a human can contract the infection from an animal
and vice versa. Examples include zoonotic influenza, plague, West Nile virus,
and the commonly known one is malaria. According to several types of research,
the modern human species originated from the primate origin species. According
to a study, Annual Review of microbiology headed by Paul M. Sharp, African
gorillas pier at most minuscule 12 plasmodium kinds, some of which have been
the foundation of contamination to human health. Plasmodium falciparum
is said to have emerged after transmission of a gorilla parasite over 9000
years ago (Arisue
et al., 2019). At the same time, another species of Plasmodium, Plasmodium
vivax, is recognized to have appeared from an organism lineage that
disease-ridden both people and chimps in Africa; formerly, humankind was
eliminated by the Duffy-negative mutation. Also, a leverage study was carried
across Africa's sub-Saharan regions by sampling out some apes, phylogenetic
analysis of nuclear, chondriosomes, and apoplast gene fragments of several apes
were taken. This analysis proved the presence of leverania species in
all of the apes. [i]
Let's also take a case in Brazil; Although malaria infection cases in
southeast Brazil are decreasing gradually, an essential upsurge in Plasmodium
vivax origin-like cases have been reported in the Atlantic Forest remote
areas of Rio de Janeiro state. These cases, when examined in the laboratory,
indicated that several were of non-human primate origin. Research carried out
by Filipe Vieira Santos de Abreu, and his team involved sampling of 146
non-human primates of six different species from the Atlantic Forest and its
bounders with blood tested; the howler monkeys were the only species to be
found infected. This study, therefore, indicated that the howler monkey acts as
a significant tank of human malaria parasites in areas of southeast Brazil.
Lastly, a screening of whole mosquito DNA was done to check a potential
plasmodium zoonosology. i.e., to determine which mosquito trajectory can convey
the plasmodium organism. The study indicated the presence of plasmodium
falciparum in species anopheles moucheti and Plasmodium vivax
on both anopheles moucheti and anopheles vinckei. This study can
is good enough to show that there is a possibility that the Anopheles mosquito
is capable of the plasmodium parasite from one to another, either a human or an
animal.
Primate plasmodium
Researchers first discovered Plasmodium parasites in African chimpanzees
and gorillas as early as over 100 years ago. In this research, three structural
and different types were
obtained. The first two forms were identical to P. malariae and P.
falciparum, while the third form took after P. vivax and P. ovale.
The old-world simians were also found to contain Plasmodium Inui under a
study conducted by von
Prowazek and Halberstaedter in 1907, running
across Malaysia, China, the Philippines, and Indonesia. This plasmodium species
is said to have a remarkable resemblance to Plasmodium vivax, with a
life cycle of 72-hour periodicity.
Either a study carried out by Das
Gupta in 1938, a volunteer man was given an intramuscular injection for blood
obtained from an infected monkey. After 23 days, the patient started showing
signs of high fever then developed bald-faced symptoms. This again proved that
this species is also infectious to humans.
Another study comprised two
volunteers being uncovered to bites of infected mosquitoes. Another seven guys,
including one black man, were subjected to the injection of infected blood from
the first fellow. It was observed that after 30 to 55 days, every man was
infected with over 2200 per mm3 parasite count. The volunteers complained
about losing appetite, fever, headaches, joints, and muscular pains, but they
were short of duration and mild on chilling. Further blood samples from 4
volunteers were taken and injected into monkeys, producing typical P. inui
infections. While negroes were proved to be resistant to P. malariae,
they were unable to resist Plasmodium inui. For the cure and
antibiotics, a study conducted in 1969 by Rossan and Voller showed simians with
Plasmodium knowlesi had low plasmodium Inui infections development and lower
parasitemia peak than those infected by plasmodium inui alone (Ang
et al., 2020). When a specimen of Plasmodium
Inui from different geographical regions were induced to the same, it was found
to react over each other's antigens. Also, El Nahal study of 1967 showed that
plasmodium Inui antisera failed to interact with exoerythrocytic antigens of plasmodium
malariae and Plasmodium cynomolgi using the fluorescent process.
Plasmodium Inui
Presence of human
malaria infections of primate origin
In a study carried out across seven Vietnamese provinces, using three
methods of outdoor and indoor human landing catches and light traps, a total of
over two thousand mosquitoes belonging to the species of anopheline were
collected, and a nested analysis was conducted on their thorax and abdomen to
determine their species. One thousand three hundred ninety mosquitoes were
analyzed using nested polymerase chain reaction, and over 40 mosquitoes were
obtained to Plasmodium parasitic positive. Further analysis of the 40 positive
cases was conducted, and twelve were found to contain mixed infection species
of plasmodium Inui with Plasmodium vivax or non-human primate kind
(Jeyaprakasam
et al., 2020).
This case indicates that humans are at significant risk of contracting
non-human primate Plasmodium parasites as well as human plasmodium parasites.
In another study conducted across five Southeast Asian countries involving
seven inhabitants, using nested-polymerase chain reaction analysis, a total of
276 samples of long-tailed monkeys were tested, and 177 emerged plasmodium
parasites optimistic. Plasmodium cynomolgi was found to be the most
common case amongst the sample population, and plasmodium knowlesi was the
least parasite obtained to have infected the monkeys actually with one document
case from a monkey from Lao wildlife.
In another epidemiological study
carried out in Pahang in Malaysia, two young girls were obtained to be carrying
the Plasmodium Inui. Still, neither showed any signs of illness before,
during, or after blood collection. The plasmodium inui cases were detected from
different DNA extractions and were transmitted by anopheles cracens
mosquitoes. The significant similarities between the Plasmodium Inui and the
other Plasmodium were that they experienced the same asexual duration cycle in
the blood and took a long time to develop erythrocytic stages in the liver.
In some malaria-endemic zones, a
significant part of the population has become carriers. It thus needs clinical
diagnosis in order to detect the presence of the disease, and this method
involves an examination of the patient's physical conditions and symptoms. In
severe malaria conditions caused by plasmodium falciparum is more evident and
easier to suspect the presence of malaria than confirm with lab results. Another
method used to detect the presence of Plasmodium parasites is antigen
detection, immunologic test using cassette or dipstick format. There are
several methods of treating malaria. The first is to administer insecticide by
treating bed nets in order to kill vector insects, i.e., mosquitoes. The following
method involves administering antibiotics and treatment of diagnosed disease by
offering artemisinin-based combined therapy. Some known antibiotics to treat
malaria are Malarone, quinine sulfate with doxycycline, and primaquine
phosphate.
The belief that these plasmodium infections are associated with having
originated from apes can be true if a comparison is a stage with the origin of widespread
disease, HIV. In research conducted in 1999, a strain of simian
immunodeficiency virus was identical to that of human immunodeficiency virus. A
study on how the chimpanzees contracted the strains came to be concluded that
chimps hunted and ate two species of more miniature monkeys which spread the
strains to them. With some time, the two unidentical strains joined together to
form one intense strain (SIVcpz) that could spread to other chimps and be
passed to humans. The same case applies to the plasmodium parasite, and the
monkeys acted as the creation and breeding host for the parasite. The parasite
evolved from one weak form in the monkey to another strong form that could
affect both humans and animals.[ii]
When we compare plasmodium diseases with HIV, we see that the strains of
both disorders have the ability to incorporate the effects of antibiotics and
form another strain that can withstand the impact of antibiotics for some time.
For about a decade now the HIV has become one of the rare diseases to cure. The
same case applies with malaria; some strains that can withstand antibiotics are
evolving, costing scientists sleepless nights (Loy et al., 2018). In this wise, monkeys can be regarded as the source
of the plasmodium parasite in humans.
Conclusion
Under the current surge of evolution in plasmodium parasites, if
scientists will not act faster, stronger parasites than previous versions will.
They will not be easy to curb once widespread because of their mechanism to
adopt a new environment quickly and effectively. This means that rare variants
to human-like Plasmodium Inui will have a chance to entirely override a human
host, which is very dangerous because it will continue to evolve and breed into
stronger versions putting human and animal life at a significant risk
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